The Journal of comparative neurology
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The transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of cation channels contains four temperature-sensitive channels, named TRPV1-4, that are activated by heat stimuli from warm to that in the noxious range. Recently, two other members of this superfamily, TRPA1 and TRPM8, have been cloned and characterized as possible candidates for cold transducers in primary afferent neurons. Using in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemistry, we characterized the precise distribution of TRPA1, TRPM8, and TRPV1 mRNAs in the rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. ⋯ None of these three TRP channels were coexpressed with TrkB or TrkC. The TRPM8-expressing neurons were more abundant in the TG compared with the DRG, especially in the mandibular nerve region innervating the tongue. Our data suggest heterogeneity of TRPM8 and TRPA1 expression by subpopulations of primary afferent neurons, which may result in the difference of cold-sensitive primary afferent neurons in sensitivity to chemicals such as menthol and capsaicin and nerve growth factor.
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Migraine headache is triggered by and associated with a variety of hormonal, emotional, nutritional, and physiological changes. The perception of migraine headache is formed when nociceptive signals originating in the meninges are conveyed to the somatosensory cortex through the trigeminal ganglion, medullary dorsal horn, and thalamus. Is there a common descending pathway accounting for the activation of meningeal nociceptors by different migraine triggers? We propose that different migraine triggers activate a wide variety of brain areas that impinge on parasympathetic neurons innervating the meninges. ⋯ The SSN, in turn, activates postganglionic parasympathetic neurons in the sphenopalatine ganglion, resulting in vasodilation and local release of inflammatory molecules that activate meningeal nociceptors. Are there ascending pathways through which the trigeminovascular system can induce the wide variety of migraine symptoms? We propose that trigeminovascular projections from the medullary dorsal horn to selective areas in the midbrain, hypothalamus, amygdala, and basal forebrain are functionally positioned to produce migraine symptoms such as irritability, loss of appetite, fatigue, depression, or the quest for solitude. Bidirectional trafficking by which the trigeminovascular system can activate the same brain areas that have triggered its own activity in the first place provides an attractive network of perpetual feedback that drives a migraine attack for many hours and even days.
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The study of dopaminergic influences on acetylcholine release is especially useful for the understanding of a wide range of brain functions and neurological disorders, including schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and drug addiction. These disorders are characterized by a neurochemical imbalance of a variety of neurotransmitter systems, including the dopamine and acetylcholine systems. Dopamine modulates acetylcholine levels in the brain by binding to dopamine receptors located directly on cholinergic cells. ⋯ In addition, cholinergic neurons in other critical brain areas also show dopamine D5 receptor expression. Dopamine D5 receptors were localized on the somata, dendrites, and axons of cholinergic cells in each of the brain areas examined. These findings support the functional importance of the dopamine D5 receptor in the modulation of acetylcholine release throughout the brain.
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Voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) play an essential role in controlling neurotransmitter release, neuronal excitability, and gene expression in the nervous system. The distribution of cells that contain mRNAs encoding the auxiliary alpha2delta-1, alpha2delta-2, and alpha2delta-3 subunits of the VGCCs in the central nervous system (CNS) and the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) was examined in rats by using in situ hybridization. Specific labeling of alpha2delta-1, alpha2delta-2, and alpha2delta-3 mRNAs appeared to be largely confined to neurons and was widely, although differentially, distributed in the brain, the spinal cord, and the DRG. ⋯ The alpha2delta-2 subunit mRNA is present in brain regions known to modulate the overall activities of the cortex, the hippocampus, and the thalamus. The alpha2delta-2 subunit is also found in brain regions known to be involved in olfaction, somatic motor control, fluid homeostasis, ingestive and defensive behaviors, neuroendocrine functions, and circadian rhythm. In addition to being localized in brain regions that express alpha2delta-1 and alpha2delta-2 subunit mRNAs, alpha2delta-3 subunit mRNA is highly expressed in regions involved in auditory information processing and somatic movement.
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The cortical subventricular zone (SVZ), a proliferative compartment in the forebrain, has a uniquely important role during the second half of intrauterine development in human. This is best observed in numerous neonatal pathologies that result from prenatal SVZ damage. These conditions highlight a need to better understand the contribution of the SVZ to the development of the human cerebral cortex. ⋯ Immunolabeling with BrdU showed that a considerable number of cells ( approximately 10%) are generated in the human cortical SVZ during midgestation (18-24 gw) under in vitro conditions. Immunofluorescence with cell type-specific markers and BrdU revealed that all major cell types, neural precursors (nestin+), astroglia including radial glia (GFAP+, vimentin+), and oligodendrocyte progenitors (PDGFR-alpha+) were proliferating. An increase in the ratio of the size of the SVZ to VZ, protracted period of cell proliferation, as well as cellular and histological complexity of the human fetal SVZ are directly related to the evolutionary expansion of the human cerebral cortex.