Primary care
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The risk of travel-related illnesses that require vaccines varies depending on destination and traveler characteristics. Travelers who are not immune and going to countries and regions with endemic diseases are at risk of contracting vaccine-preventable diseases; they can serve as conduits of the disease on return to their home country. Individual travelers can work with a health care professional to assess travel risk based on diseases endemic to the region, time of year of travel, and presence of acute outbreaks. Travelers should discuss personal medical history, immunization status, purpose of trip, and other individual risk factors to help determine which vaccines they need.
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Vaccines can prevent illness but are effective only if they reach a majority of the population at risk. Disparities based on many factors, such as race and ethnicity, economic status, and rural versus urban locations of residents, are ongoing issues in the United States. ⋯ At the government level, programs like Vaccines for Children, Medicaid reform, Medicare, and state efforts funded in part by 317 grants have helped reduce but not eliminate disparities. At a practice level, vaccine disparities can be addressed by community outreach and systems to offer and deliver vaccines.
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A significant minority of patients and parents are vaccine hesitant, defined as having the desire to delay or defer immunizations despite easy access to vaccines. Vaccine hesitancy exists along a spectrum, from patients who are concerned but willing to accept the recommended vaccine schedule to those who wish to use a delayed schedule to those who refuse vaccines altogether. A strong recommendation in favor of a vaccine is the most important reason a patient or parent accepts the immunization. Structural changes, such as removing personal and religious exemptions for vaccines required for attending school, are effective tools in increasing vaccination rates.
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Today vaccines can provide immunity against and treatment of a growing number of diseases including noninfectious conditions. Vaccine science continues to evolve newer and safer ways to deliver prevention and treatment of infectious and noninfectious diseases. This includes new adjuvants to enhance immunogenicity; delivery systems to reduce pain and improve acceptability; a wider range of uses including preventing emerging infectious diseases, such as Zika virus and Ebola, treatment of chronic diseases, such as cancer, and autoimmune disorders; and repurposing of existing vaccines, such as bacillus Calmette-Guérin for novel therapies.