The journal of pain : official journal of the American Pain Society
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In recent years, there has been increasing acknowledgment of the need for psychometric data regarding the dot-probe paradigm. The aim of the present study was to provide some data on the psychometric properties of the dot-probe paradigm in the context of pain-related research. Using the data of a large pain-free sample and a large chronic pain sample, the present study examined the psychometric properties of a picture- and word-based dot-probe task. It also examined the data of idiosyncratically selected stimuli designed to be relevant to each participant and compared this with the data of neutral stimuli and nonsalient pain-related stimuli. Poor levels of internal consistency (α range: -.44 to .28; split-half r range: -.35 to .11) and test-retest reliability (r range: -.14 to .13) were found among the pain-free sample, irrespective of the task used or the stimuli used. There was limited evidence of comparability between the 2 tasks among the chronic pain sample (r range: -.08 to .26) and similarly poor levels of internal-consistency (α range: -.56 to .17; split-half r range: -.20 to .25). The findings of the present study therefore suggest that psychometric issues may be important to pain-related attentional bias research. More research is, however, undoubtedly needed. ⋯ The aim of the present study was to provide data regarding the psychometric properties of the dot-probe paradigm within the specific context of pain-related attentional bias research. The findings of this study suggest that psychometric issues may be an important consideration in pain-related attentional biases research.
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Previously we showed that swearing produces a pain lessening (hypoalgesic) effect for many people.(20) This paper assesses whether habituation to swearing occurs such that people who swear more frequently in daily life show a lesser pain tolerance effect of swearing, compared with people who swear less frequently. Pain outcomes were assessed in participants asked to repeat a swear word versus a nonswear word. Additionally, sex differences and the roles of pain catastrophizing, fear of pain, and daily swearing frequency were explored. Swearing increased pain tolerance and heart rate compared with not swearing. Moreover, the higher the daily swearing frequency, the less was the benefit for pain tolerance when swearing, compared with when not swearing. This paper shows apparent habituation related to daily swearing frequency, consistent with our theory that the underlying mechanism by which swearing increases pain tolerance is the provocation of an emotional response. ⋯ This article presents further evidence that, for many people, swearing (cursing) provides readily available and effective relief from pain. However, overuse of swearing in everyday situations lessens its effectiveness as a short-term intervention to reduce pain.
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The present study investigated the effects of social threat to physical integrity on reported pain and facial pain expression. Predictions of a cognitive appraisal model and a communicative perspective on pain expression were compared. Participants (N = 67) received 5 electric pain stimuli administered by a confederate. They were led to believe that 5 pain stimuli were the minimum, a fixed amount, or the maximum number of pain stimuli allowed, thereby varying the social threat posed by the confederate. Reported pain and facial pain expression were recorded during the delivery of pain stimuli. Increased perceived social threat led to an increase of reported pain, specifically for high pain catastrophizing participants, while it led to a reduction of facial pain expression. This is the first study to demonstrate that a social threat manipulation has opposite effects on reported pain and facial expression, suggesting differences in adaptive function for both forms of pain expression. ⋯ This is the first demonstration showing an increase in verbal pain report and a decrease in nonverbal pain expression at the same time during social threat. This knowledge may contribute to improving pain assessment in different contexts.
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The aim of this study was to evaluate motor unit activity from a latent myofascial trigger point (MTP) in an antagonist muscle during isometric agonist muscle contraction. Intramuscular activity was recorded with an intramuscular electromyographic (EMG) needle inserted into a latent MTP or a non-MTP in the posterior deltoid muscle at rest and during isometric shoulder flexion performed at 25% of maximum voluntary contraction in 14 healthy subjects. Surface EMGs were recorded from the anterior and posterior deltoid muscles. Maximal pain intensity and referred pain induced by EMG needle insertion were recorded on a visual analogue scale. The results showed that higher local pain was observed following needle insertion into latent MTPs (4.64 ± .48 cm) than non-MTPs (2.35 ± .43 cm, P < .005). Referred pain was reported in 6/14 subjects following needle insertion into latent MTPs, but none into the non-MTPs. The intramuscular EMG activity, but not surface EMG activity, in the antagonist muscle was significantly higher at rest and during shoulder flexion at latent MTPs than non-MTPs (P < .05). The current study provides the first evidence that increased motor unit excitability is associated with reduced antagonist reciprocal inhibition. ⋯ This study shows that MTPs are associated with reduced efficiency of reciprocal linhibition, which may contribute to the delayed and incomplete muscle relaxation following exercise, disordered fine movement control, and unbalanced muscle activation. Elimination of latent MTPs and/or prevention of latent MTPs from becoming active may improve motor functions.
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Engaged attention, including music listening, has shown mixed results when used as a method for reducing pain. Applying the framework of constructivism, we extend the concept of engagement beyond attention/distraction to include all cognitive and emotional/motivational processes that may be recruited in order to construct an alternative experience to pain and thus reduce pain. Using a music-listening task varying in task demand, we collected stimulus-evoked potentials, pupil dilation, and skin conductance responses to noxious electrocutaneous stimulations as indicators of central and peripheral arousal, respectively. Trait anxiety (Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) and absorption (Tellegen Absorption Scale) provided indicators of individual differences. One hundred and fifty-three healthy, normal volunteers participated in a test session in which they received 3 stimulus intensity levels while listening to background tones (No Task) or performing a music-listening task. Linear slopes indicating net engagement (change in stimulus arousal relative to task performance) decreased with increasing task demand and stimulus level for stimulus-evoked potentials. Slopes for pupil dilation response and skin conductance response varied with task demand, anxiety, and absorption, with the largest engagement effect occurring for high anxiety/high absorption participants. Music engagement reduces pain responses, but personality factors like anxiety and absorption modulate the magnitude of effect. ⋯ Engaging in music listening can reduce responses to pain, depending on the person: people who are anxious and can become absorbed in activities easily may find music listening especially effective for relieving pain. Clinicians should consider patients' personality characteristics when recommending behavioral interventions like music listening for pain relief.