The journal of pain : official journal of the American Pain Society
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Observational Study
Development and Validation of a Daily Pain Catastrophizing Scale.
To date, there is no validated measure for pain catastrophizing at the daily level. The Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) is widely used to measure trait pain catastrophizing. We sought to develop and validate a brief, daily version of the PCS for use in daily diary studies to facilitate research on mechanisms of catastrophizing treatment, individual differences in self-regulation, and to reveal the nuanced relationships between catastrophizing, correlates, and pain outcomes. After adapting the PCS for daily use, we evaluated the resulting 14 items using 3 rounds of cognitive interviews with 30 adults with chronic pain. We refined and tested the final daily PCS in 3 independent, prospective, cross-sectional, observational validation studies conducted in a combined total of 519 adults with chronic pain who completed online measures daily for 14 consecutive days. For study 1 (N = 131), exploratory factor analysis revealed adequate fit and-unexpectedly-unidimensionality for item responses to the daily PCS. Study 2 (N = 177) correlations indicated adequate association with related constructs (anger, anxiety, pain intensity, depression). Similarly, results for study 3 (N = 211) revealed expected correlations for daily PCS and measures of daily constructs including physical activity, sleep, energy level, and positive affect. Results from complex/multilevel confirmatory factor analysis confirmed good fit to a unidimensional model. Scores on the daily PCS were statistically comparable with and more parsimonious than the full 14-item version. Next steps include evaluation of score validity in populations with medical diagnoses, greater demographic diversity, and in patients with acute pain. ⋯ This article describes the development and validation of a daily PCS. This daily measure may facilitate research that aims to characterize pain mechanisms, individual differences in self-regulation, adaptation, and nuanced relationships between catastrophizing, correlates, and pain outcomes.
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Individuals experiencing homelessness in the United States are aging; little is known about chronic pain in this population. In a cross-sectional, population-based study, we interviewed 350 homeless individuals aged 50 years and older to describe pain experienced by older persons experiencing homelessness and to assess factors associated with chronic moderate to severe pain, defined as pain lasting ≥3 months, with a past week average severity score of 5 to 10 (scale 0-10). The median age of participants was 58 years. Participants were predominantly African American (79.6%) and male (77.3%). Overall, 46.8% reported chronic moderate to severe pain. Almost half of participants reported a diagnosis of arthritis (44.3%) and one-third reported symptoms consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; 32.8%). Three-quarters (75.3%) endorsed a personal history of abuse. In multivariate analyses, PTSD (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 2.2, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.4-3.7), arthritis (AOR: 4.8, 95% CI, 3.0-7.8), and history of experiencing abuse (AOR: 2.4, 95% CI, 1.3-4.3) were associated with chronic moderate to severe pain. HIV status, diabetes, depressive symptoms, and substance use were not associated with pain. Clinicians should consider the management of associated mental health conditions and the sequelae of experiencing abuse in the treatment of chronic pain in older adults experiencing homelessness. ⋯ This article describes the prevalence and factors associated with chronic pain in older homeless adults. Almost half report chronic pain, which was associated with PTSD, arthritis, and personal history of abuse. Clinicians should address chronic pain, trauma, and the associated mental health conditions in this high-risk population.
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Comparative Study
Age differences in the time-course and magnitude of changes in circulating neuropeptides following pain evocation in humans.
This study tested the hypothesis that older adults would have a stronger response for substance P (facilitatory) but weaker response to β-endorphin (inhibitory), in magnitude as well as time course. Eight younger and 9 older adults underwent 3 experimental sessions using well validated laboratory pain models: cold pressor task, contact heat pain, and a nonpainful control. Blood was collected through an indwelling catheter at baseline and 3, 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes after stimuli administration. Older adults had higher baseline levels of both neuropeptides suggesting increased peripheral activity compared with younger adults. After the cold pressor task, older adults demonstrated a quick and strong release of substance P with dramatic recovery, whereas young adults maintained a constant low-grade response. Unlike substance P, β-endorphin increased between 3 and 15 minutes for both groups with the upsurge substantially higher for older adults. After heat pain, younger adults had an immediate surge in circulating substance P and β-endorphin that was more pronounced than among older adults. However, levels of substance P for younger adults slowly tapered whereas they continued to climb for the older adults through 30 minutes. β-endorphin peaked at 30 minutes for both groups and returned to baseline. No changes were observed during the nonpainful control session. ⋯ Older adults had higher baseline levels of substance P and β-endorphin suggesting increased peripheral activity compared with younger adults. After pain evocation, older adults demonstrated a more intense early response for both neuropeptides suggesting peripheral mechanisms involved in the response to pain may change with age.
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Placebo analgesia, reductions in pain after administration of an inert treatment, is a well documented phenomenon. We report, to our knowledge, the first demonstration that placebo analgesia can be experienced when a sham analgesic is applied onto a rubber hand. ⋯ During synchronous visuotactile stimulation, pain was experienced on the rubber arm, and the application of the sham analgesic to the rubber arm significantly decreased the severity of reported pain. This shows that experience of the body can modulate expectations and the induction of placebo analgesia.
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Clinical Trial
The relationship between sensory loss and persistent pain 1 year after breast cancer surgery.
Moderate to severe persistent pain after breast cancer surgery (PPBCS) affects 10 to 20% of the patients. Sensory dysfunction is often concomitantly present suggesting a neuropathic pain state. The relationship between various postoperative pain states and sensory dysfunction has been examined using quantitative sensory testing (QST), but only 2 smaller studies have examined PPBCS and sensory dysfunction in the surgical area. ⋯ Increased hypoesthesia areas were associated with pain at rest as well as during movement (P = .0001). Pain during movement was associated with a side-to-side difference of 140% (P = .001) for tactile detection threshold and 40% (P = .01) for mechanical pain threshold as well as increased thermal thresholds in the axilla (P > .001). Logistic regression models controlling for confounders showed larger areas of hypoesthesia as a significant risk factor, odds ratio 1.85 per 100 cm2 for pain at rest and odds ratio 1.36 per 100 cm2 for pain during movement.