• Emilia Sokolowska, Bartlomiej Kalaska, Joanna Miklosz, and Andrzej Mogielnicki.
• a Department of Pharmacodynamics , Medical University of Bialystok , Bialystok , Poland.
• Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2016 Aug 1; 12 (8): 897-909.

IntroductionUnfractionated heparin is a strongly anionic anticoagulant used extensively in medicine to prevent blood clotting. In the case of an emergency bleeding in response to heparin, the protamine sulfate is administered. Despite its extensive clinical use, protamine may produce life-threatening side effects such as systemic hypotension, catastrophic pulmonary vasoconstriction or allergic reactions. Recent studies have demonstrated new organ-specific complications of the heparin reversal with protamine.Areas CoveredPast and present knowledge of the mechanisms responsible for the toxicity of protamine and the most promising potential replacements of protamine in the different phases of development.Expert OpinionDespite of the low therapeutic index, protamine is the only registered antidote of heparins. The toxicology of protamine depends on a complex interaction of the high molecular weight, a cationic peptide with the surfaces of the vasculature and blood cells. The mechanisms involve membrane receptors and ion channels targeted by different vasoactive compounds, such as nitric oxide, bradykinin or histamine. Unacceptable side effects of protamine have led to a search for new alternatives: UHRA, LMWP, and Dex40-GTMAC3 are in the preclinical stage; the two other agents (andexanet alfa and PER977) are already in the advanced clinical phases.

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