• Michael E Porambo and J Kevin DeMarco.
• Department of Radiology, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA.
• Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2020 Aug 1; 10 (4): 1019-1031.

AbstractCurrent risk stratification for stroke is still based upon percentage of carotid stenosis, despite this measure providing minimal patient-specific information on the actual risk of stroke for both symptomatic individuals without significant carotid artery stenosis as well as asymptomatic carotid stenosis patients. A continuously growing body of literature suggests that the identification and quantification of certain carotid plaque characteristics, including lipid-rich necrotic core (LRNC), thin/ruptured fibrous cap (FC), and intraplaque hemorrhage (IPH), provide a superior means of predicting future stroke. These characteristics are identifiable via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with most features detectable using commercially available coils and sequences utilized in routine clinical practice in as little as 4 minutes. The presence of LRNC, a thin/ruptured FC, and IPH is associated with increased risk of future stroke or TIA. Plaques with greater than 40% LRNC with a thin overlying FC are prone to rupture. LRNC is T2 hypointense and lacks enhancement on contrast enhanced T1 weighted images. Increasing LRNC size is associated with the development of new ulceration, FC rupture, increasing plaque burden, as well as fatal and nonfatal myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, hospitalization for acute coronary syndrome (ACS), and symptom-driven revascularization, allowing for MR biomarkers of carotid plaque vulnerability to be utilized for systemic athero-thrombotic risk and not just stroke/TIA. LRNC typically shrinks with appropriate statin therapy, with PCSK9 inhibitors possibly playing a role in patients with inadequate response. Carotid plaques with IPH represent a more advanced stage of atherosclerotic disease. IPH is detectable with field strengths of both 3.0 T and 1.5 T and will demonstrate high signal on all T1 weighted imaging sequences. The presence of IPH increases the risk of future stroke in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients, with multivariate analysis identifying IPH as a predictor of stroke, independent of percent stenosis, with no statistical difference in men vs. women, demonstrating that simple carotid stenosis measurements and traditional risk factor analysis may be inadequate in identifying patients at the highest risk for adverse cerebrovascular events. In the evaluation for recurrent stroke in recently symptomatic patients with >50% carotid stenosis, the estimated annual stroke risk is 23.2% in IPH+ patients and only 0.6% in IPH- patients, calling into question the current risk-benefit assessment for CEA. Additionally, a recent meta-analysis suggests that IPH+ plaque in patients with symptomatic <50% stenosis may be the etiology of embolic strokes previously labeled as "embolic stroke of undetermined source" (ESUS). There are no prospective drug trials testing the ability of any lipid-lowering therapies to decrease IPH and/or total plaque volume (TPV). Given the continuously increasing evidence of IPH as a significant predictor of carotid plaque progression and future adverse vascular events, trials aimed at targeted therapy for IPH represents a significant need.2020 Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy. All rights reserved.

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