• Samuel Chiquita, Ana C Rodrigues-Neves, Filipa I Baptista, Rafael Carecho, Paula I Moreira, Miguel Castelo-Branco, and António F Ambrósio.
• iCBR, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
• Mol. Neurobiol. 2019 Aug 1; 56 (8): 5416-5435.

AbstractAlzheimer's disease is the most frequent cause of dementia worldwide, representing a global health challenge, with a massive impact on the quality of life of Alzheimer's disease patients and their relatives. The diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease constitutes a real challenge, because the symptoms manifest years after the first degenerative changes occurring in the brain and the diagnosis is based on invasive and/or expensive techniques. Therefore, there is an urgent need to identify new reliable biomarkers to detect Alzheimer's disease at an early stage. Taking into account the evidence for visual deficits in Alzheimer's disease patients, sometimes even before the appearance of the first disease symptoms, and that the retina is an extension of the brain, the concept of the retina as a window to look into the brain or a mirror of the brain has received increasing interest in recent years. However, only a few studies have assessed the changes occurring in the retina and the brain at the same time points. Unlike previous reviews on this subject, which are mainly focused on brain changes, we organized this review by comprehensively summarizing findings related with structural, functional, cellular, and molecular parameters in the retina reported in both Alzheimer's disease patients and animal models. Moreover, we separated the studies that assessed only the retina, and those that assessed both the retina and brain, which are few but allow establishing correlations between the retina and brain. This review also highlights some inconsistent results in the literature as well as relevant missing gaps in this field.

19 keywords...

hide…