• Jai Carmichael, Jennie Ponsford, Kate Rachel Gould, Jeggan Tiego, Miriam K Forbes, Roman Kotov, Alex Fornito, and Gershon Spitz.
• Monash-Epworth Rehabilitation Research Centre, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
• J. Neurotrauma. 2024 Jul 25.

AbstractPsychopathology, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress, is a significant yet inadequately addressed feature of moderate-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Progress in understanding and treating post-TBI psychopathology may be hindered by limitations associated with conventional diagnostic approaches, specifically the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) offers a promising, transdiagnostic alternative to psychiatric classification that may more effectively capture the experiences of individuals with TBI. However, HiTOP lacks validation in the TBI population. To address this gap, we administered a comprehensive questionnaire battery, including 56 scales assessing homogeneous symptom components and maladaptive traits within HiTOP, to 410 individuals with moderate-severe TBI. We evaluated the reliability and unidimensionality of each scale and revised those with psychometric problems. Using a top-down, exploratory latent variable approach (bass-ackwards modeling), we subsequently constructed a hierarchical model of psychopathological dimensions tailored to TBI. The results showed that, relative to norms, participants with moderate-severe TBI experienced greater problems in the established HiTOP internalizing and detachment spectra, but fewer problems with thought disorder and antagonism. Fourteen of the 56 scales demonstrated psychometric problems, which often appeared reflective of the TBI experience and associated disability. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology Following Traumatic Brain Injury (HiTOP-TBI) model encompassed broad internalizing and externalizing spectra, splitting into seven narrower dimensions: Detachment, Dysregulated Negative Emotionality, Somatic Symptoms, Compensatory and Phobic Reactions, Self-Harm and Psychoticism, Rigid Constraint, and Harmful Substance Use. This study presents the most comprehensive empirical classification of psychopathology after TBI to date. It introduces a novel, TBI-specific transdiagnostic questionnaire battery and model, which addresses the limitations of conventional DSM and ICD diagnoses. The empirical structure of psychopathology after TBI largely aligned with the established HiTOP model (e.g., a detachment spectrum). However, these constructs need to be interpreted in relation to the unique experiences associated with TBI (e.g., considering the injury's impact on the person's social functioning). By overcoming the limitations of conventional diagnostic approaches, the HiTOP-TBI model has the potential to accelerate our understanding of the causes, correlates, consequences, and treatment of psychopathology after TBI.

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