• Nichole Bosson, Benjamin N Abo, Troy D Litchfield, Zaffer Qasim, Matthew F Steenberg, Jake Toy, Antonia Osuna-Garcia, and John Lyng.
• Los Angeles County EMS Agency, Santa Fe Springs, California.
• Prehosp Emerg Care. 2024 Oct 24: 1131-13.

AbstractEntrapped patients may be simply entombed or experiencing crush injury or entanglement. Patients with trauma who are entrapped are at higher risk of significant injury than patients not entrapped. Limited access and prolonged scene times further complicate patient management. Although patient entrapment is a significant focus of specialty teams, such as urban search & rescue (US&R) teams that operate as local, regional, and/or national resources in response to complex scenes and disaster scenarios, entrapment is a regular occurrence in routine EMS response. Therefore, all EMS clinicians must have the training and skills to manage entrapped patients and to support medically-directed rescue throughout the extrication process. NAEMSP RECOMMENDSEMS clinicians must perform a timely and thorough primary and secondary assessment and reassessments in parallel with dynamic extrication planning; the environment may require adaption of standard assessment techniques and devices.EMS clinicians should establish early, clear, and ongoing communications with rescue personnel to ensure a coordinated patient-centered medically directed approach to extrication. Communication with the patient should be frequent, clear, and reassuring.EMS clinicians should immediately take measures to effectively prevent and manage hypothermia.EMS clinicians should recognize airway management in the entrapped patient is always challenging. When required, advanced airway placement should be performed by the most experienced operator with proficiency in multiple modalities and alternative techniques in limited access situations.In entrapped patients who are experiencing or are at risk for crush syndrome, EMS clinicians should initiate large-volume (i.e., 1-1.5 L/h for adults and 20 mL/kg/h for pediatric patients for the initial 3-4 h) fluid resuscitation with crystalloid, preferably normal saline, as early as possible and prior to extrication.In entrapped patients who are experiencing or are at risk for crush syndrome, EMS clinicians should administer medications to mitigate risks of hyperkalemia, infection, and renal failure, early and prior to extrication.Tourniquet application should be considered in the setting of the crushed extremity as a potential adjunct to medical optimization before extrication of some patients.Patients with prolonged entrapment with the potential for severe injuries require complex resuscitation and may benefit from EMS physician management on scene. EMS systems should consider an early EMS physician response to entrapped patients.

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