• Anne M Lynn, Heidi Bradford, Eric D Kantor, Kok-Yong Seng, David H Salinger, James Chen, Richard G Ellenbogen, Paolo Vicini, and Gail D Anderson.
• Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management, Children's Hospital and Regional Medical Center, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA. anne.lynn@seattlechildrens.org
• Anesth. Analg. 2007 May 1;104(5):1040-51, tables of contents.

BackgroundNonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs have been useful for treating postoperative pain in children. The only parenteral nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug currently available in the United States is ketorolac tromethamine with cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 effects. Information on the pharmacokinetics of ketorolac in infants is sparse, making dosing difficult. Ketorolac is administered as a racemic mixture with the S(-) isomer responsible for the analgesic effect. In this study, we describe the population pharmacokinetics of ketorolac in a group of 25 infants and toddlers who received a single IV administration of racemic ketorolac and evaluate the potential influence of patient covariates on ketorolac disposition.MethodsIn this double-blind, placebo-controlled study, ketorolac pharmacokinetic, safety, and analgesic effects were studied in 37 infants and toddlers (aged 6-18 mo) postoperatively. On postoperative day 1, infants were randomized to receive placebo, 0.5, or 1 mg/kg ketorolac as a 10-min IV infusion. Blood samples were collected up to 12-h after dosing. The data were analyzed using noncompartmental and compartmental (nonlinear mixed-effects model) means. The patient covariates, including body weight, age, and surgical procedure, were analyzed in a stepwise fashion to identify their potential influence on ketorolac pharmacokinetics.ResultsThe data were best described by a two-compartmental model. Inclusion of covariates did not significantly decrease the nonlinear mixed-effects model objective function values and between-subject variability in the pharmacokinetic parameters of nested models. The mean and standard error of the estimates of the R(+) isomer were central volume of distribution 1200 +/- 163 mL (coefficient of variation of interindividual variability, 13.6%), peripheral volume of distribution 828 +/- 108 mL (13.0%), clearance from the central compartment 7.52 +/- 0.7 mL/min (9.3%), and extrapolated elimination half-life 238 +/- 48 min. Those of the S(-) isomer were 2320 +/- 34 (14.6%), 224 +/- 193 mL (86.2%), 45.3 +/- 5.5 mL/min (12.1%), and 50 +/- 42 min respectively. Dosing simulations, using population pharmacokinetic parameters, showed no accumulation of S(-) ketorolac but steady increases in R(+) ketorolac. Safety assessment showed no adverse effects on renal or hepatic function tests, surgical drain output, or continuous oximetry between placebo and ketorolac groups. Cumulative morphine administration showed large interpatient variability and was not different between groups.ConclusionThe stereo-isomer-specific clearance of ketorolac in infants and toddlers (aged 6-18 mo) shows rapid elimination of the analgesic S(-) isomer. No adverse effects on surgical drain output, oximetry measured saturations, renal or hepatic function tests were seen. Simulation of single dosing at 0.5 or 1 mg/kg every 4 or 6 h does not lead to accumulation of S(-) ketorolac, the analgesic isomer, but does result in increases in R(+) ketorolac. Shorter dose intervals may be needed in infants older than 6 mo.

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