• Ramesh M Gowda, Ijaz A Khan, Gopikrishna Punukollu, Balendu C Vasavada, and Chandra K Nair.
• Division of Cardiology, Long Island College Hospital, Brooklyn, NY, USA.
• Int. J. Cardiol. 2005 May 11; 101 (1): 1-7.

AbstractRefractory angina pectoris is defined as Canadian Cardiovascular Society class III or IV angina, where there is marked limitation of ordinary physical activity or inability to perform ordinary physical activity without discomfort, with an objective evidence of myocardial ischemia and persistence of symptoms despite optimal medical therapy, life style modification treatments, and revascularization therapies. The patients with refractory angina pectoris may have diffuse coronary artery disease, multiple distal coronary stenoses, and or small coronary arteries. In addition, a substantial portion of these patients cannot achieve complete revascularization and continue to experience residual anginal symptoms that may impair quality of their life and increase morbidity. This represents an end-stage coronary artery disease characterized by a severe myocardial insufficiency usually with impaired left ventricular function. As the life expectancy is increasing, patients with angina pectoris refractory to conventional antianginal therapeutics are a challenging problem. We review the nonconventional therapies to treat the refractory angina pectoris, including pharmacotherapy, therapeutic angiogenesis, transcutaneus electrical nerve and spinal cord stimulation, enhanced external counterpulsation, surgical transmyocardial laser revascularization, percutaneous transmyocardial laser revascularization, percutaneous in situ coronary venous arterializations, and percutaneous in situ coronary artery bypass. These therapies are not supported by a large body of data and have only a complementary role; therefore, the aggressive traditional and proven treatment of angina pectoris should be continued along with these therapies, used on an individual basis.

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