• Michael Christ, Nils Ludwig, and Bernhard Maisch.
• Klinik für Innere Medizin-Kardiologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg. christ_michael@yahoo.de
• Herz. 2002 Mar 1; 27 (2): 135-49.

PathogenesisAll forms of chronic heart failure (high-output and low-output failure) are accompanied by an "arterial underfilling" inducing the activation of various neurohumoral systems (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, sympathic nervous system, non-osmotic stimulation of vasopressin). Elevated levels of those neurohormones detrimentally modulate renal function. Subsequently, renal salt and volume retention occurs leading to the main symptoms of heart failure, edema formation and dyspnea.Diuretic TherapyDiuretics, which have been discovered more than 40 years ago, beneficially influence renal salt- and volume retention by their effects on tubular sodium reabsorption. While thiazides are recommended in mild forms, loop diuretics are used in severe stages of congestive heart failure. The clinician has to consider the changed pharmacokinetic and -dynamic properties during the application of diuretics in patients with chronic heart failure. In addition, increased sodium reabsorption occurs immediately after cessation of diuretic action often nullifying the preceding diuresis. Thus, salt- and volume restriction should be guaranteed, and a regular application of loop diuretics during the day should be preferred due to the short-acting nature of currently available loop diuretics. Sometimes, diuresis does not longer occur during the treatment with one substance (diuretic resistance), although the therapeutic goals of water excretion have not been achieved. After ruling out factors reducing the actions of diuretics (non-compliance, hyponatremia, etc.), a sequential nephron blockade should be initiated (combination of loop diuretics and a thiazide or an aldosterone-receptor antagonist) to increase diuresis and to elevate symptoms of volume overload.Side EffectsLoop diuretics and thiazides often induce mild hypokalemia, which has been demonstrated to be not as benign as thought before. Chronic treatment with oral potassium supplements has several drawbacks, as urine excretion of potassium is subsequently increased and supplementation is not as effective as believed. Diuretic-induced hypokalemia seems to be aldosterone dependent. As aldosterone levels increase during diuretic therapy even during chronic treatment with an angiotensin-converting enzyme (aldosterone-escape) a combined treatment including an aldosterone-receptor antagonist has been suggested. Beneficial effects of aldosterone-receptor blockade on mortality (RALES trial) appear to be mediated be extrarenal and renal mechanisms. The suggested beneficial renal mechanisms of aldosterone receptor blockade are discussed in detail in the review.ConclusionIn conclusion, diuretic therapy of patients with congestive heart failure is effective to relieve symptoms and, presumably, to prolong life. As renal function and pharmacokinetics and -dynamics of diuretics are changed in heart failure, diuretic treatment has to be adapted to provide optimal treatment. Increased levels of aldosterone appear to play an important role in diuretic-induced hypokalemia, and in the progression of heart and renal failure. Thus, aldosterone receptor antagonists should be used in the treatment of heart failure more frequently.

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