Neuroscience
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Stem cells have a number of properties, which make them excellent candidates for the treatment of various neurologic disorders, the most important of which being their ability to migrate to and differentiate predictably at sites of pathology in the brain. The disease-directed migration and well-characterized differentiation patterns of stem cells may eventually provide a powerful tool for the treatment of both localized and diffuse disease processes within the human brain. A thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing their migratory properties and their choice between different differentiation programs is essential if these cells are to be used therapeutically in humans. This review focuses on summarizing the migration and differentiation of therapeutic neural and mesenchymal stem cells in different disease models in the brain and also discusses the promise of these cells to eventually treat various forms of neurologic disease.
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Dopamine neurons of the ventral midbrain are activated transiently following stimuli that predict future reward. This response has been shown to signal the expected value of future reward, and there is strong evidence that it drives positive reinforcement of stimuli and actions associated with reward in accord with reinforcement learning models. Behavior is also influenced by reward uncertainty, or risk, but it is not known whether the transient response of dopamine neurons is sensitive to reward risk. ⋯ In a Pavlovian task, in which the neuronal responses to each stimulus could be measured in isolation, it was found that dopamine neurons were more strongly activated by the stimulus associated with reward risk. Given extensive evidence that dopamine drives reinforcement, these results strongly suggest that dopamine neurons can reinforce risk-seeking behavior (gambling), at least under certain conditions. Risk-seeking behavior has the virtue of promoting exploration and learning, and these results support the hypothesis that dopamine neurons represent the value of exploration.
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During the development of epilepsy in adult animals, newly generated granule cells integrate abnormally into the hippocampus. These new cells migrate to ectopic locations in the hilus, develop aberrant basal dendrites, contribute to mossy fiber sprouting, and exhibit changes in apical dendrite structure and dendritic spine number. Mature granule cells do not appear to exhibit migration defects, basal dendrites, and mossy fiber sprouting, but whether they exhibit apical dendrite abnormalities or spine changes is not known. ⋯ In contrast to immature granule cells, exposing mature granule cells to status epilepticus did not significantly disrupt the branching structure of their apical dendrites. Mature granule cells did, however, exhibit significant reductions in spine density and spine number relative to age-matched cells from control animals. These data demonstrate that while mature granule cells are resistant to developing the gross structural abnormalities exhibited by younger granule cells, they show similar plastic rearrangement of their dendritic spines.
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We have recorded, for the first time, in non-anesthetized, head-restrained mice, a total of 407 single units throughout the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR), which contains serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) neurons, during the complete wake-sleep cycle. The mouse DR was found to contain a large proportion (52.0%) of waking (W)-active neurons, together with many sleep-active (24.8%) and W/paradoxical sleep (PS)-active (18.4%) neurons and a few state-unrelated neurons (4.7%). The W-active, W/PS-active, and sleep-active neurons displayed a biphasic narrow or triphasic broad action potential. ⋯ Triphasic DR slow-wave sleep (SWS)-active and SWS/PS neurons were also characterized by slow firing. At the transition from sleep to waking, sleep-selective neurons with no discharge activity during waking ceased firing before onset of waking, while, at the transition from waking to sleep, they fired after onset of sleep. The present study shows a marked heterogeneity and functional topographic organization of both serotonergic and non-serotonergic mouse DR neurons and suggests that they play different roles in behavioral state control and the sleep/waking switch.
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Review
Interactions of the serotonin and circadian systems: nature and nurture in rhythms and blues.
The serotonin and circadian systems are principal regulatory networks of the brain. Each consists of a unique set of neurons that make widespread neural connections and a defined gene network of transcriptional regulators and signaling genes that subserve serotonergic and circadian function at the genetic level. ⋯ The reciprocal connections of the serotonin and circadian systems likely have importance for neurobehavioral disorders, as suggested by their convergent contribution to a similar range of mood disorders including seasonal affective disorder (SAD), bipolar disorder, and major depression, and as suggested by their overlapping relationship with the developmental disorder, autism spectrum disorder. Here we review the neuroanatomical and genetic basis for serotonin-circadian interactions in the brain, their potential relationship with neurobehavioral disorders, and recent work examining the effects on the circadian system of genetic perturbation of the serotonergic system as well as the molecular and behavioral effects of developmental imprinting of the circadian system with perinatal seasonal light cycles.