Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America
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Opioids remain the strongest and most effective analgesics available. The downside is that they are addictive and potentially dangerous. Throughout history, although recognizing the value of opioids in treating serious pain, especially acute pain and pain at the end of life, there has been caution about using opioids to treat chronic pain. This article presents how opioids should be used to treat chronic pain considering recent concerns about their efficacy and safety.
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Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am · May 2015
ReviewCentral hypersensitivity in chronic musculoskeletal pain.
Clinical research has consistently detected alteration in central pain processing leading to hypersensitivity. Most methods used in humans are reliable and have face validity to detect widespread central hypersensitivity. However, construct validity is difficult to investigate due to lack of gold standards. ⋯ Research on pain biomarkers that reflect specific central hypersensitivity processes is warranted. Few studies have analyzed the prognostic value of central hypersensitivity. Most medications acting at central level and some non-pharmacological approaches, including psychological interventions, are likely to attenuate central hypersensitivity.
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Evidence of nonopioid analgesic effectiveness exceeds that for long-term opioids in chronic noncancer pain (CNCP), most with lower risk. Non-drug therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy and physical activation are safer and also effective. ⋯ Antidepressants with noradrenergic activity (such as tricyclics and seroton-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) and neuromodulating anticonvulsant drugs (gabapentinoids and sodium-channel blockers) are proven to be effective for neuropathic and centralized pain. Ketamine and cannabinoids are other studied analgesics but have a less well-proven role in CNCP.
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Although most patients recover from acute whiplash injuries, those with chronic whiplash syndrome develop signs of central nervous system (CNS) amplification of pain and have a poor prognosis. In this context, specific pain generators from acute whiplash have been identified through clinical, biomechanical, and animal studies. This article gives a clinical perspective on current understanding of these pain generators, including the phenomenon of CNS sensitization.