• Mingjian Bei, Qiyong Cao, Chunpeng Zhao, Yaping Xiao, Yimin Chen, Honghu Xiao, Xu Sun, Faming Tian, Minghui Yang, and Xinbao Wu.
• Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Jishuitan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100035, China.
• Chin. Med. J. 2025 Jan 17.

AbstractThis review aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of the etiology, epidemiology, pathology, and conventional treatment of heterotopic ossification (HO), especially emerging potential therapies. HO is the process of ectopic bone formation at non-skeletal sites. HO can be subdivided into two major forms, acquired and hereditary, with acquired HO predominating. Hereditary HO is a rare and life-threatening genetic disorder, but both forms can cause severe complications, such as peripheral nerve entrapment, pressure ulcers, and disability if joint ankylosis develops, which heavily contributes to a reduced quality of life. Modalities have been proposed to treat HO, but none have emerged as the gold standard. Surgical excision remains the only effective modality; however, the optimal timing is controversial and may cause HO recurrence. Recently, potential therapeutic strategies have emerged that focus on the signaling pathways involved in HO, and small molecule inhibitors have been shown to be promising. Moreover, additional specific targets, such as small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and non-coding RNAs, could be used to effectively block HO or develop combinatorial therapies for HO.Copyright © 2025 The Chinese Medical Association, produced by Wolters Kluwer, Inc. under the CC-BY-NC-ND license.

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