Neuroscience
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Although morphine was previously reported to produce an instant induction of c-fos in the striatum, our recent studies have demonstrated that the expression of numerous immediate early genes (IEGs) is significantly elevated at delayed time-points (several hours) after morphine administration. To better dissect the time-course of opioid-produced IEG induction, we used in situ hybridization to examine the expression of the IEGs c-fos, zif268 and arc in the mouse forebrain at several time-points after acute morphine injection. To link drug-produced behavioral changes with the activity of specific neuronal complexes, this study was performed comparatively in the C57BL/6 and DBA/2 mouse strains, which differ markedly in their locomotor responses to opioids and opioid reward. ⋯ The second IEG induction (of arc and of zif268) was more widespread, involving most of the dStr and the cortex. The second IEG induction peaked earlier in the DBA/2 mice than in the C57BL/6 mice (4 h compared with 6 h) and displayed no apparent relation to locomotor behavior. This delayed episode of IEG activation, which has largely been overlooked thus far, may contribute to the development of long-term effects of opioids such as tolerance, dependence and/or addiction.
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Spinally projecting preproglucagon axons preferentially innervate sympathetic preganglionic neurons.
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) affects central autonomic neurons, including those controlling the cardiovascular system, thermogenesis, and energy balance. Preproglucagon (PPG) neurons, located mainly in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) and medullary reticular formation, produce GLP-1. In transgenic mice expressing glucagon promoter-driven yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), these brainstem PPG neurons project to many central autonomic regions where GLP-1 receptors are expressed. ⋯ The distributions of spinal PPG axons and spinal GLP-1 receptors correlate well. SPN receive the densest PPG innervation. Brainstem PPG neurons could directly modulate sympathetic outflow through their spinal inputs to SPN or interneurons.
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Orexins are bioactive peptides, which have been shown to play a pivotal role in vigilance state transitions: the loss of orexin-producing neurons (orexin neurons) leads to narcolepsy with cataplexy in the human. However, the effect of the need for sleep (i.e., sleep pressure) on orexin neurons remains largely unknown. Here, we found that immunostaining intensities of the α1 subunit of the GABAA receptor and neuroligin 2, which is involved in inhibitory synapse specialization, on orexin neurons of mouse brain were significantly increased by 6-h sleep deprivation. ⋯ Using a slice patch recording, orexin neurons demonstrated increased sensitivity to a GABAA receptor agonist together with synaptic plasticity changes after sleep deprivation when compared with an ad lib sleep condition. In summary, the GABAergic input property of orexin neurons responds rapidly to sleep deprivation. This molecular response of orexin neurons may thus play a role in the changes that accompany the need for sleep following prolonged wakefulness, in particular the decreased probability of a transition to wakefulness once recovery sleep has begun.
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The effects of the ibotenic acid infused into the area of the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) of rats on the expression of cortical and accumbal neuropeptides were assessed. The effects of this manipulation were determined in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) by estimating the numerical density of varicosities immunoreactive for vesicular acetylcholine transporter and the total number of NAc neurons immunoreactive for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) as well as the total number of mPFC neurons immunoreactive for NPY and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). In LDT-lesioned rats, the density of the cholinergic varicosities was reduced in the ventral divisions of the mPFC and in all divisions of the NAc. ⋯ Conversely, the total number of VIP-immunoreactive neurons in the mPFC and of ChAT-immunoreactive neurons in the NAc did not differ between LDT- and sham-lesioned rats. These data provide the first direct evidence for a relationship between selective damage of LDT cholinergic neurons and decreased expression of NPY in the mPFC and NAc. They also reveal that different types of cortical and accumbal interneurons respond differently to the cholinergic denervation induced by LDT lesions.
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Feeding increases plasma osmolality and ovarian steroids may influence the balance of fluids. Vasopressin (AVP) neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) express estrogen receptor type β (ERβ), but not estrogen receptor type α (ERα). The circumventricular organs express ERα and project efferent fibers to the PVN and SON. ⋯ FOS-ERα co-expression in the ventral median preoptic nucleus (vMnPO) was reduced by estrogen and increased after refeeding with standard chow following fasting. It appears that estrogen may indirectly modulate the activity of AVP neurons, which are involved in the mechanism affected by hyperosmolality-induced refeeding after fasting. This indirect action of estrogen can be at least in part via ERα in the vMnPO.