American journal of epidemiology
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Researchers conducting observational studies need to consider 3 types of biases: selection bias, information bias, and confounding bias. A whole arsenal of statistical tools can be used to deal with information and confounding biases. ⋯ In this paper, we propose general bounding formulas for bias, including selection bias and unmeasured confounding. This should help researchers make more prudent interpretations of their (potentially biased) results.