Nutrition
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Cytokines are produced in disease or during immunologic challenge. Some cytokines increase host resistance to disease whereas others trigger inflammatory processes. Interleukin 1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) are pro-inflammatory cytokines that affect nearly every cell either alone or in a synergistic fashion. ⋯ It is unclear whether these endogenous levels are sufficient to block IL-1 and TNF from triggering their respective cell-bound receptors in disease. IL-1 infusions into patients induce circulating levels of IL-1ra but not IL-1. TNF infusions into patients also induce high levels of soluble TNF receptors.